Northern Lighthouse Board Operations and the Skerryvore Lighthouse

Constitution and Powers of the Northern Lighthouse Board

The Northern Lighthouse Board was established in 1786 through an act of Parliament[1]. This act authorized the construction of four lighthouses in the northern parts of Great Britain[1]. The initial commissioners included the Lord Advocate and Solicitor-General of Scotland, the Lord Provost and first Bailie of Edinburgh, the Lord Provost and first Bailie of Glasgow, and the Provosts of Aberdeen, Inverness, and Campbeltown[1]. Sheriffs from various counties were also included[1].

Subsequent acts allowed the Commissioners to add the Provost or Chief Magistrate of the nearest Royal Burgh and the Sheriff-Depute of the nearest county when a new lighthouse was established[1]. This expanded the board's composition[1]. The Board was later erected into a body politic called the "Commissioners of the Northern Lighthouses"[1].

The Commissioners initially had the power to levy a duty on British and foreign vessels to fund their operations[1]. However, these duties were later abolished and replaced by tolls regulated by an Act of Parliament in 1836[1]. This act stipulated a toll of one-halfpenny per ton for British vessels and one penny per ton for foreign vessels passing any of the lighthouses, with double the tolls for foreign vessels not granted the same duty as British vessels[1]. The act also required the Commissioners to notify the Corporation of Trinity-House of Deptford Strond before altering any light or erecting a new lighthouse[1]. That Corporation then had six months to provide feedback, although the Commissioners could appeal to the Privy Council if dissatisfied[1]. The Board also had the power to control the exhibition of harbor and local lights[1].

Income and Expenditure of the Board

The annual statement of income and expenditure for 1846, prepared by the Secretary to the Commissioners, Mr. Alexander Cuninghame, provides a snapshot of the Board's finances[1]. (Note: the specific financial figures from 1846 are provided later in this document.)

Improvements and Changes

Since 1821, the Commissioners established seventeen new lighthouses and remodeled several older ones[1]. They implemented changes in illumination methods and began placing beacons and buoys on the coast[1]. They also improved communication with lighthouses through the construction of landing piers and roads[1]. A significant change in lighthouse apparatus was the introduction of revolving lights, which helped distinguish one light from another[1]. My Father first applied it in the year 1827 as a means of distinction for the Light of Buchanness[1]. This distinction consists in giving the frame a greater number of sides or faces, and a more rapid revolution[1].

Refracting lights and lenticular apparatus were also introduced[1]. This system involved placing a lamp behind a lens, which would bend the rays, or successive rings or bent prisms arranged in the form of a hoop[1]. This produced light with more equality in every direction[1]. In 1834, I was sent on a mission to France to report on the dioptric and catoptric apparatus for lighthouse illumination[1]. On my return from France I made a Report, which was printed by order of the Commissioners[1].

The establishment of a system of Beacons and Buoys on the coast of Scotland for the purpose of affording additional facilities to navigation, had long been looked upon as a desirable extension of the operations of the Northern Lights Board[1]. In 1840, the Engineer reported to the committee upwards of fifty stations for Beacons, and nearly a hundred for Buoys[1].

The Skerryvore Lighthouse in the Board's Mission

The construction of the Skerryvore Lighthouse was an undertaking of the most formidable kind[1]. Expense considerations and uncertainty of success led to delays, even though the Act of Parliament authorizing its erection was obtained in 1814[1]. The Skerryvore rocks were a known danger to mariners, lying in the track of vessels sailing around the north of Ireland from the Clyde and the Mersey[1]. The establishment of a light at this location was of utmost importance for vessels heading to the North Irish Channel[1].

The Lighthouse Board aimed to transform this obstruction into “acheering guide for the benighted mariner”[1]. My labours were also continually interrupted by the urgent calls of my official duties; and, on several occasions, I was forced to dismiss unfinished chapters from my mind for a period of several months[1]. There was no loss of either life or limb amongst us. expressing heartfelt thankfulness to ALMIGHTY GOD for merciful preservation in danger, and for the final success which terminated our arduous and protracted labours[1].

Annual Statement of Income and Expenditure of the Northern Lights Board for 1846

The gross amount of duties received for the year 1846 was £46,001:11:28[1]. After deducting commissions and repayments, the net amount of duties for the year was £43,381:7:1[1]. This represented a deficiency compared to the £52,391:8:4 received in 1845[1]. The deficiency was attributed to reductions in light duties, including those for the Bell Rock, Corsewell, Mull of Galloway, and Pladda lights[1].

The commissioners spent £90,268:12:1 overall for the Skerryvore Lighthouse, and £58,580 for the Skerryvore Tower[1]. In 1846, the ordinary expenditure of the Board was £32,063:6:3, resulting in a surplus of £13,938:4:11 to meet extraordinary expenditure[1]. Total expenditure for the year, however, was £60,374:15:9, exceeding the surplus, an over expenditure of £12,479:7:0[1].


The Benefits of Eating Corn on the Cob for Dental Health

title: 'How to Protect Your Teeth from Corn on the Cob on July 4th - SkydentalAZ'

Eating corn on the cob can be good for your teeth when consumed with care. The fiber in corn helps promote saliva production, which aids in washing away food debris and neutralizing acids that can cause tooth decay. It's a crunchy food that, when chewed, assists in cleaning teeth naturally, similar to how other fibrous foods like apples and carrots help reduce plaque build-up[1].

However, corn can easily get stuck between teeth, which may lead to cavities if not properly cleaned after eating. To mitigate this risk, it’s recommended to brush and floss after consumption[2][3]. Overall, enjoying corn on the cob can support dental health if proper oral hygiene practices are observed.

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What do people use Twitter?

title: 'What Is X (Twitter) Used For? [Updated Nov 2024] | Oberlo'

People use Twitter, now known as X, primarily to keep up to date with news and current events, with 59.6% of users reporting this as their main reason for engagement. Additionally, the platform serves as a space for finding funny or entertaining content, with 35.1% using it for that purpose, and over a third of users follow brands and research products, highlighting its value for businesses looking to connect with consumers[1][2]. Twitter is generally less favored for personal messaging, with only 16.7% using it to communicate with family and friends, making it more of a public forum than a private social network[1][2].

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How many millionaires are there in the United States?

Based on various sources, the number of millionaires in the United States[3] varies. According to the Credit Suisse Global Wealth Report[1], there were just under 30 million millionaires in[1] 2023. However, a 2024 USA Wealth Report from Henley & Partners and New World Wealth[2] stated that there are now more than 5.5 million Americans with liquid investible assets of more than[2] $1 million, up 62% over the past decade. On the other hand, reported approximately 22 million millionaires in the[3] United States. Data from Statista estimated the number of millionaire households in the[3] United States to be around 7.1 million in 2020, while the number of high net worth individuals[4] was approximately 4.8 million in 2021. Additionally, as of 2022, there were 22.7 million millionaires in the United States, representing 6.7% of the country's population. Zippia reported that there are approximately 22 million millionaires in the United States, which accounts for 8.8% of the adult population.


Why does spicy food help with a cold?

title: 'Can spicy foods cure colds? A neuroscientist reveals the encouraging truth'

Spicy food can help with a cold primarily due to the compound capsaicin found in chili peppers. Capsaicin acts as a natural decongestant, temporarily thinning mucus and clearing nasal passages, which makes it easier to breathe[5][6]. Additionally, spicy foods can create a warming sensation that induces sweating, potentially helping to lower a fever[4][6].

Moreover, consuming spicy food can provide short-term relief for sore throats by overwhelming the pain system and making irritation feel less intense[1][2]. However, while these effects can offer temporary comfort, spicy foods are not a cure for colds[2][3].

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Transformation of Urban Transportation Through Ride-Sharing

'a man and woman with backpacks and bicycles on a sidewalk'
title: 'Shared mobility: Sustainable cities, shared destinies' and caption: 'a man and woman with backpacks and bicycles on a sidewalk'

Introduction to Ride-Sharing

Ride-sharing, particularly embodied by services like Uber and Lyft, has dramatically altered the landscape of urban transportation. Emerging around 2010, these platforms transformed traditional transportation models by leveraging mobile technology to connect riders with drivers. This innovation disrupted established taxi services, providing a more convenient and often cost-effective alternative for urban mobility. The convenience of ordering a ride via a smartphone app has caught on globally, reshaping commuter patterns and urban traffic dynamics.

Market Growth and Economic Impact

The ride-sharing market has seen tremendous growth since its inception. For instance, in 2019, consumers utilized ride-hailing services for more than 15 billion trips, generating revenues of approximately $130 billion, with projections suggesting this could escalate to between $450 billion and $860 billion by 2030[1]. Additionally, the rise of shared micromobility—such as electric scooters and bicycles—has complemented ride-sharing, leading to a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) exceeding 200% in the micromobility sector[1]. The shared-mobility market overall could expand rapidly, potentially reaching $1 trillion by 2030, shaped by varied factors like consumer adoption and technological advances[1][2].

Changes in Consumer Behavior

A significant aspect of ride-sharing's impact is the shift in consumer behavior towards shared mobility. More than 60% of individuals expressed willingness to utilize shared rides if it could save on costs, indicating an evolving mindset towards collective transportation options[6]. This shift reflects a growing demand for not just convenience but also affordability, specifically among younger generations who prioritize cost-effective travel solutions.

Urban Traffic Congestion and Mobility Patterns

Automatic car speeding at night
title: 'Automatic car speeding at night' and caption: 'a car driving on a highway'

Contrary to the expectation that ride-sharing would alleviate urban congestion, studies have shown mixed results. The introduction of Transportation Network Companies (TNCs) has been linked to increased road congestion and a decline in public transport ridership. Data indicates that TNCs have contributed to a 0.9% rise in congestion levels and an 8.9% decrease in public transport usage[5]. This trend highlights a complex interplay where ride-sharing services can entice users away from public transit while simultaneously raising traffic volumes.

In cities like New York, ride-sharing services have mirrored this trend, with increasing rates of ride-hailing correlating with decreased vehicle ownership. Statistically, the percentage of households without a car in Manhattan rose significantly, showcasing a diminished reliance on private vehicle ownership thanks to the availability of on-demand ride services[2][4].

Environmental Considerations

Commuters on bicycles
title: 'Commuters on bicycles' and caption: 'two women riding a bike'

From an environmental perspective, ride-sharing holds potential for reducing carbon footprints, particularly with initiatives aimed at integrating electric vehicles into fleets. Uber's commitment to transitioning to an electric fleet by 2025 in London exemplifies the industry's shift towards more sustainable practices[2]. The considerable emissions reductions achievable through shared services stand in contrast to the increased traffic congestion attributed to TNCs, which raise critical questions for urban planners about the long-term sustainability of current models[5].

Policy and Regulatory Challenges

Ride-sharing's rapid expansion has brought about numerous regulatory challenges. Local authorities grapple with the classification and regulation of TNCs, particularly concerning issues such as driver safety, insurance requirements, and fare structures. This debate has significant implications for the potential integration of ride-sharing services into existing public transit systems, as policymakers must seek a balance between fostering innovation and ensuring public safety[7].

Future of Shared Mobility

As the future unfolds, the role of autonomous vehicles in the ride-sharing landscape could redefine urban mobility once again. Robo-taxis and autonomous shuttles are anticipated to offer competitive pricing against traditional ride-hailing services as they eliminate driver costs[1][6]. The integration of autonomous vehicles could enhance the convenience and efficiency of ride-sharing, potentially leading to higher levels of consumer adoption and significant shifts in urban transport infrastructure.

Moreover, advancements in air mobility, such as flying taxis, signal another frontier for shared transportation, with major investments indicating an increasing focus on this innovative avenue[1]. However, the realization of these technologies will depend heavily on advancements in regulation and public acceptance, as well as the readiness of urban infrastructures to accommodate these new forms of transport.

Conclusion

'a graph showing different colored dots'
title: 'smartcities g002' and caption: 'a graph showing different colored dots'

The ride-sharing phenomenon represents a significant evolution in urban transport, reshaping how cities manage mobility, congestion, and environmental sustainability. While the benefits of convenience and reduced reliance on private vehicle ownership are notable, challenges such as increased congestion and regulatory hurdles complicate the overall picture. As the sector continues to evolve, the integration of shared and autonomous vehicles could offer new solutions to longstanding urban transportation issues, highlighting the delicate balance cities must strike between innovation, sustainability, and accessibility.

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How high is Mull of Kintyre light-room?

The light-room at the Mull of Kintyre is elevated 240 feet above the medium level of the sea[1].


What are the benefits of regular exercise?

nhs.uk

Regular exercise offers numerous health benefits, including weight control by burning calories, which helps prevent excess weight gain[3][5]. It combats health conditions such as cardiovascular disease, hypertension, and type 2 diabetes, while also boosting mood and reducing symptoms of depression and anxiety[2][3][5][6].

Additionally, exercise improves muscle and bone strength, enhances brain health, and can lead to better sleep quality[2][3][4]. Engaging in regular physical activity promotes overall well-being and longevity, lowering the risk of premature death from various health issues[3][4][6].

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The Influence of African Art on Modern Artists

Vibrant Past, Vibrant Future: The Emergence of Contemporary African Art
title: 'Vibrant Past, Vibrant Future: The Emergence of Contemporary African Art' and caption: 'a painting of a person with colorful designs'

Historical Context of Influence

African art has historically played a significant role in shaping modern and contemporary art movements globally. The recognition of African art surged in the late 19th century, gaining further momentum in the early 20th century as Western artists began to explore and incorporate its stylistic elements into their works. Notably, prominent figures like Pablo Picasso and Henri Matisse found inspiration in the bold forms and emotional power of African art, which contributed to significant developments in the modern art movement, such as Cubism and Expressionism.

The influence of African art is particularly evident in the way it contrasts with European artistic traditions. While Western art was often rooted in realism and naturalism, African art featured more abstract and symbolic elements. This divergence opened new avenues for artistic expression in the West, prompting artists to experiment with new forms and materials inspired by their encounters with African art. For instance, the incorporation of elements from African masks and sculptures can be observed in works like Picasso's 'Les Demoiselles d'Avignon,' which famously broke away from traditional Western perspectives on representation to highlight angular, mask-like features that aligned with African aesthetic sensibilities[7].

Recognition and Institutional Validation

Vibrant Past, Vibrant Future: The Emergence of Contemporary African Art
title: 'Vibrant Past, Vibrant Future: The Emergence of Contemporary African Art' and caption: 'a group of people standing in a room'

The journey towards global recognition of African art accelerated with landmark exhibitions such as “Les magiciens de la terre” at the Centre Pompidou in 1989, which highlighted the vibrancy and relevance of contemporary African artists. The exhibition informed audiences that African art was not merely a relic of the past but a dynamic and influential force relevant to contemporary issues. This exhibition, along with others, helped reframe the understanding of African art within the broader narrative of global art history and established a platform for African artists to be recognized on an international stage[2].

Since the 1990s, countless international galleries have opened their doors to African exhibitions, signaling a recognition of the continent's artistry as integral to the global art community. As African artists gain visibility in global art markets, their works increasingly penetrate prestigious institutions, impacting Western consumption and appreciation of art. Artists like El Anatsui, who transforms recycled materials into monumental sculptures, and Wangechi Mutu, known for her Afro-futuristic collages, are prime examples of how modern African art embodies a fusion of traditional and contemporary elements, resonating deeply with both African and global audiences[2][3].

Modern Artists Shaping the Narrative

Contemporary artists are increasingly exploring their cultural identity and heritage, often weaving in their responses to societal changes and historical contexts influenced by African traditions. For example, El Anatsui's installations, made from discarded bottle caps, not only reinvent materials from a socio-economic context but also evoke historical themes tied to colonial legacies. His work speaks to both African identity and eco-consciousness, bridging past and present narratives[5] .

Similarly, artists like Wangechi Mutu employ narratives that intertwine African cultural references with global themes such as feminism and identity politics. Her pieces challenge traditional depictions of femininity in a post-colonial context, elevating African womanhood while engaging with themes of race and representation in contemporary society[6]. Through such explorations, modern artists engage with their heritage meaningfully, creating a dialogue that challenges stereotypes while asserting the complexity and beauty of African identities.

Contemporary African artists are also helping to reshape the global narrative of art through participation in international art fairs, exhibitions, and museums. Events like the 1-54 Contemporary African Art Fair and ART X Lagos have provided platforms for emerging artists to showcase their work, fostering connections with collectors, curators, and the art-loving public across the globe. This growing visibility not only elevates African art but also demonstrates the continent's diverse artistic practices and vibrant cultural output[1][2].

Theoretical Framework of African Art's Influence

Vibrant Past, Vibrant Future: The Emergence of Contemporary African Art
title: 'Vibrant Past, Vibrant Future: The Emergence of Contemporary African Art' and caption: 'a black and white drawing of a crescent moon'

The legacy of African art serves as both a source of inspiration and a point of exploration for modern artists. The intrinsic qualities of African art—its narratives, expressions, and forms—provide fertile ground for contemporary artists to draw upon, often navigating thematic complexities. The use of vibrant colors, bold patterns, and symbolic elements from African traditions allows them to communicate profound societal messages, engage audiences emotionally, and foster a deeper understanding of cultural identities[7].

Modern artists have also perceived the influences of African art beyond merely stylistic elements; they frequently explore themes related to identity, colonial history, and globalization. This broader perspective represents a shift from the past notions of appropriation towards more respectful forms of engagement that acknowledge the sovereignty of African aesthetics while collaboratively intertwining them with global art narratives[4][6].

Conclusion

The influence of African art on modern artists is profound and multifaceted. Through its rich historical context, documented impact on significant art movements, and the dynamic work of contemporary artists, African art continues to inspire creative expression across various mediums. Artists engage in dialogues that reclaim narratives, challenge established norms, and reshape perceptions of African identity within a global framework. This interconnection ultimately highlights the power of African art not only as a form of cultural expression but also as a vital contributor to the evolution of modern art.


What is existentialism?

Existentialism - Wikipedia

Existentialism is a philosophical inquiry that focuses on the existence of the individual and asserts that individuals must embrace responsibility for their actions and strive to lead authentic lives, despite the universe's inherent absurdity or incomprehensibility. It examines concepts like meaning, purpose, value, existential crises, angst, courage, and freedom[1].

The term 'existentialism' was coined by the French philosopher Gabriel Marcel in the mid-1940s, and the movement includes contributions from notable thinkers such as Søren Kierkegaard, Friedrich Nietzsche, Jean-Paul Sartre, and Albert Camus[1]. A central tenet of existentialism is the idea that 'existence precedes essence,' implying that individuals define themselves through their actions and choices rather than through predetermined categories or essences[1].

Existentialism emphasizes personal freedom, individual responsibility, and deliberate choice as crucial to self-discovery and finding meaning in life[1]. It rejects traditional systematic philosophies as too abstract, advocating instead for authenticity and concrete human experience[1]. Notably, existentialist themes also explore the absurdity of existence and the struggle to find meaning in a seemingly indifferent universe, as illustrated by works involving the experiences of individuals facing their own freedom and the consequences of their choices[1].

[1] wikipedia.org
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